Psychological Intervention and its impact upon personality (Past Academic Essay)

This essay was written whilst I was a student attending Northumbria University for my Integrated Assignment in Individual Differences and Psychometrics. For this task we were given two options, in which I chose option 2 (Personality). The assignment created a faux scenario in which a Health Psychologist employed by a local consortium of council authorities known as the Newcastle Health Consortium (NHC), has approached you as an expert in individual differences, to write a report on the efficacy of psychological interventions for adults who want to change their personality. They were particularly impressed by this press release comment by Jarrett (2021).  “Your personality will continue to evolve through your life, partly as a natural response to your changing situations and also because of gradual changes in your physiology. Most exciting, there are ways you can take control of this malleability to mould yourself more in line with the person you aspire to be.” (Jarrett, 2021) NHC would like you to write a 5000-word report to them which: (A) Critically considers the relevant psychological research in terms of psychological intervention and its impact upon personality with a guideline of 3000 words AND (B) Provides guidance to the psychologist on the development of their new psychometric measure. Specifically, the consortium would like you to carry out a psychometric assessment of a measure of conscientiousness, the Newcastle Health Consortium Conscientiousness Test (NHCCT) which they have recently started to develop, for use with adults, to assess the impact of their intervention to increase conscientiousness in the general population. The consortium has read that there is an association between conscientiousness and positive health behaviour (e.g., Bogg & Roberts, 2004) therefore, they aim to increase levels of this personality trait in the general population. In this component of your report, you should first provide the consortium with guidance on developing a good psychometric measure and then explicitly consider the reliability and validity of their new conscientiousness measure, based on the information that they have provided. The guidleine for part B is 2000 words.

Introduction

This report will consist of two parts; the first of which will considers the relevant psychological research in terms of psychological intervention and its impact upon personality. This first part will primarily focus on conscientiousness as a personality trait and the nature vs nurture debate. The second part will provide guidance to the psychologist on the development of their new psychometric measure otherwise known as the Newcastle Health Consortium Conscientiousness Test (NHCCT). This test aims to measure the level of conscientiousness an individual has in order to assess the impact of their intervention to increase conscientiousness in the general population. It will be concluded by the end of this report that the NHCCT is both a valid and reliable test, and that it may aid in the increasing of the level of conscientiousness amongst the general population, along with guidance on how this may be achieved.

PART A

In 2021 a Health Psychologist employed by a local consortium of council authorities, the Newcastle Health Consortium (NHC), Jarrett claimed that ‘your personality will continue to evolve through your life, partly as a natural response to your changing situations and also because of gradual changes in your physiology. Most exciting, there are ways you can take control of this malleability to mould yourself more in line with the person you aspire to be’. (Quote collected from the assignment brief)

In this essay, there will be a consideration to the relevant psychological research in terms of psychological intervention and its impact upon personality. There will be consideration to the nature vs nurture debate, as well as consideration as to whether personality can be moulded or whether it is set in stone. 

Five-Factor Theory

To begin this report, it would be wise to first acknowledge perhaps the most influential research conducted on personality would include the Five-factor theory. This theory is that the personality of any individual can be organised into five basic personality traits: Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Openness to Experience. (McCrae, R. R., & John, O. P., 1992)

Extraversion is ‘a broad personality trait that encompasses a number of more specific characteristics such as sociability, assertiveness, high activity level, positive emotions, and impulsivity’. (R.E. Lucas, E. Diener, 2001) Someone who is highly extraverted may be very social and impulsive, whereas someone who is introverted, may be socially awkward and prefer to isolate themselves. 

Agreeableness is the ability to put others needs before their own. People who are highly agreeable tend to empathetic and trustworthy. (Gordon, S., 2020)

Conscientiousness is ‘individual differences in the propensity to follow socially prescribed norms for impulse control, to be goal-directed, planful, able to delay gratification, and to follow norms and rules’. (Jackson, J. & Others, 2010) Someone who is highly conscientious may be calm and follow rules, whereas someone who scored low in conscientiousness will be very impulsive and exhibit rule breaking behaviour. 

Neuroticism is ‘a broad personality trait dimension representing the degree to which a person experiences the world as distressing, threatening, and unsafe’. (Kwon, S. and Weed, . Nathan C., 2019) Someone who is considered neurotic may feel consistently anxious about their surroundings, whereas someone who is not very neurotic may feel very calm in most situations. Then openness to Experience is the openness to experience new things. 

Most research into personality, tests individuals on the basis of these five traits and whether they develop as individuals grow older and experience different things. An example could be if researchers were to follow a child through life. When the child first took the test they might be very rule abiding and open to new experience. However, once they had experienced 30 years of life, they might be less open to experience and feel neurotic about the world around them. So the debate that follows is, can personality be solely genetics or is it solely developed through the experiences individuals go through?

Conscientiousness as a key trait

In 2004 an association was made between conscientiousness and positive health behaviour. (Bogg, T., & Roberts, B. W., 2004) The goal of this research paper was to establish a relationship between the trait of conscientiousness in the Big Five Factor Theory and health, with a specific insight into the conscientiousness-related behaviours that may lead to poor health and mortality. Using data collected from the Mills Longitudinal Study of Women, it was found that social responsibility (a well known characteristic of conscientiousness) ‘at age 21 predicted the social environmental factors of divorce (negatively) and number of children (positively), and the health-related behaviours of marijuana and tobacco use (negatively), 20 and 30 years later’. (ibid., Bogg, T., & Roberts, B. W., 2004) This study shows that low levels of conscientiousness may result in negative health effects. This is most likely due to the characteristics of someone displaying high scores of conscientiousness. These high scoring individuals tend to be cautious and disciplined, therefore they are less likely to find themselves getting accidentally injured or harmed by lack of awareness. 

In support of this, it was also found that high conscientiousness ‘predicted measures of occupational attainment, work satisfaction, work involvement, and financial security at age 26’. (ibid., Bogg, T., & Roberts, B. W., 2004) The material gain that those with high levels of conscientiousness achieve place them at higher socio-economical standing than those with low scores because a key characteristic of conscientiousness is to be achievement-striving. Being in a higher place economically gives individuals more opportunity to get a higher level of help when they are unwell, in addition to, giving them financial freedom when it comes to healthcare, meal planning, and hygiene. Thus there is a direct link between levels of conscientiousness and positive health outcomes. 

So then the question remains, can people change their level of conscientiousness or is it something which they are born with? Thus begins the debate between nature or nurture. 

Nature vs. Nurture

Nature relates to the genes and hereditary factors that a person has; what is passed down from the parents onto the child. Each individual will inherit genes from their parents, these genes determine the individuals physical growth and development such as their blood type, eye colour, hair and what their personalities will be like. (Conception and your baby's genes., 2017) Genes can also cause or increase the risk of developing certain medical conditions which may affect an individuals’ behaviours. 

Genes are made up of DNA and these genetic mutations occur when DNA changes which alters the genetic instructions. One example of this could be an abnormality in a person's chromosomes such as in Down’s Syndrome where there is an extra copy of chromosome 21. This may cause some fluctuations in personality that someone who does not have down’s syndrome may not exhibit such as feeling angry, sad, or embarrassed. Statistically, people with Down Syndrome ‘are at higher risk of mental health conditions such as depression, anxiety and obsessive-compulsive behaviour than the general population’ due to their condition. (5 things people with Down syndrome want you to know., 2019)

Aside from genetic mutations, genetics can also pass down conditions that are psychological and may have significant impact on an individuals’ personality. An example of this could be that the mother has a psychiatric condition such as Bipolar Disorder and they happen to pass that condition down to their child. In this example, the mother is reckless with their condition and allows their behaviour to be rash or dangerous. The mothers condition has a vital role in the child's development because they have to learn to cope with the mood swings that they have been predisposed with, thus the child who carries the Bipolar gene may also act rashly. 

Another example was the research conducted in 2008 that showed that ‘at least half of a person's susceptibility to drug addiction can be linked to genetic factors’. (Price, M.. 2008) This would argue that an addictive personality may be caused by a hereditary gene rather than how the individual was raised. This is important because for a long time, it has been assumed that addicts use drugs to cope when they experience trauma, however it can now be acknowledged that they may have had a predisposition to become addicted to substances. 

Nurture is how the individual experiences life. It has been theorised that genetics do not play a role in a persons’ personality, rather it is how they are raised and what they experience during their childhood. For example, if someone were to experience severe trauma during their infancy, it may develop into a personality disorder in the future. 

Often individuals will learn their behaviours from their parents and those around them, yet some individuals turn out to be the exact opposite of their parents. In 2013, researchers at the University of Exeter and the University of Hamburg sought out to find whether personality can be transferred between generations. The researchers found that ‘foster parents have a greater influence on the personalities of fostered offspring than the genes inherited from birth parents’. (University of Exeter., 2013) This indicates that nurture is the cause of personality and not biological influence.

In the 2019 study, Personality Across the Life Span, individual differences showed a ‘continuity from middle childhood age, with large retest coefficients over long intervals of time—up to 40 years—beginning in young adulthood’. (Costa, P. T., & Others, 2019) This means that personality tends to develop most between the ages of middle childhood age to 40 years of age. Beyond this, personality development stability tends to decline. There is an agreement that ‘Neuroticism and Extraversion decline while Agreeableness and Conscientiousness increase over the life span’, perhaps because of external influences such as expectations to settle down or focus on a career? (Personality Across the Life Span, undated) However, the research did conclude that the results cannot be fully accurate because multiple studies show mixed results and the testing methods were outdated, thus being unreliable. This research would suggest that whilst genes may play an important role in personality development in childhood, as individuals grow older, their personality develops due to external factors such as experiences. The research even goes as far to show that these personality traits develop until the age of 40, thus they cannot be caused by nature alone.

So in terms of this debate between nature and nurture, which is the cause of an individual’s personality? Genes seem to play an important role in a persons’ predisposition to act in a certain way, or feel certain emotions, however, nurture is what teaches individuals how they react to those predisposed traits. Someone may have a gene that makes them more likely to act in a way which is impulsive, however, if they have been raised in a way that teaches them to think about their actions and stay calm, then the individual may be less impulsive than their genetics predisposed them to be. Alike in the previous example of Bipolar Disorder, a child may carry the condition like their mother, however, if the child is taken away from their mother and taught from a young age how to cope with their condition then they might not share the same personality as their mother. This is an example of how nurture may change the outcome of what nature has already instilled within the individual. 

With specific reference to conscientiousness, is this trait caused by genetics or influenced by life experience? A person may have genetic factors that allow them to do their work more thoroughly than others or they may have factors that put them at a disadvantage. For example, someone with Attention Deficit Disorder may struggle to plan and may often act on impulse. It is harder for these individuals to therefore be conscientious. The same goes for environmental factors, if an individual is raised in a household where hard work does not seem necessary then they might struggle to fit in when it comes to finding a job. 

Personality Intervention

So if it can be agreed that nature and nurture both play vital roles in the individuals’ personality development, can personality intervention be possible? 

In 2006 a 4-week experimental study was conducted to examine the ‘motivational predictors and positive emotion outcomes of regularly practicing two mental exercises: counting one’s blessings (‘‘gratitude’’) and visualising best possible selves (‘’BPS’’)’. (Kennon M., & Others, 2006) It was theorised that these mental exercises would create positive mindsets in the individuals, thus changing their personality to be more optimistic. The results showed that completing both of the exercises within the study ‘produced immediate reductions in negative affect’. (ibid., Kennon M., & Others, 2006) Thus the study was a success at providing evidence for a change in personality in terms of optimism and pessimism. 

In addition to this, much research has been conducted into changing the way in which people behave in terms of personality disorders and trauma survivors. These techniques have been developed firstly in terms of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy, and then once again in Dialectical Behavioural Therapy. Both therapy practices focus on the way in which individuals behave and their individual symptoms rather than disorders themselves. It is encouraged that even those without personality disorders, or perceived trauma, take part in these therapeutic practices as they have shown great influence in aiding others to behave in ways which are self-flourishing and optimistic. 

The most recent therapeutic practice is the development of Dialectical Behavioural Therapy, otherwise known as DBT. DBT is a type of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy that focuses on individuals who feel emotions very intensely. This type of therapy aims to help the individual ‘understand and accept difficult feelings’, learn skills to manage those feelings, and ‘become able to make positive changes in (their) life’. (What is dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT)?, 2020) An example of how this could work, is if someone has been diagnosed with Borderline Personality Disorder and has a severe fear that their partner is going to abandon them. The individual may choose to make threats on their life if their partner leaves or physically attach themselves to their partner in hopes that it may stop them from leaving. DBT would encourage the individual to accept what they are feeling in that moment and take positive action to counteract that emotion. They might be encouraged to soothe themselves by taking a hot bath, or to write how they feel. It may also be encouraged that they speak with their partner in a non-confrontational manner that allows the situation to be dealt with in a calm way that enables the individual to feel heard and respected for their emotions. The individual still has Borderline Personality Disorder, however, the behaviours have drastically changed. This individual has acted in a way which is beneficial to the relationship and now feels secure after acting in a healthy manner. This shows that psychological intervention can have a huge impact on an individuals’ personality and the outlook that they have on life. 

A modern study conducted by Yale University and Harvard Medical School shows that the use of cognitive exercises and educational video games enhances the cognitive processes and functions, such as attention, working memory, and social cognition. This technique is called cognitive remediation and the goal of this intervention is to ‘transfer cognitive gains to other related mental tasks, but also to activities of daily living’. (Javaras, K. N., & Others, 2019) Whilst cognitive remediation has not been used to improve conscientiousness, it has successfully proven to help executive functioning in patients with Schizophrenia. Executive functions are processes which are activated when it is not possible to use an automatic function, such as trying to watch the television whilst doing homework; hence the hypothesised link between executive functions and conscientiousness. 

Conclusion to Part A

In summary, each individuals’ personality is organised into five basic personality traits of Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Openness to Experience. These traits can have a genetic influence such as a predisposition to a certain condition or temperament. These traits are also largely made up from external influences between mid-childhood and middle-age. Personality intervention showed that an individuals’ personality may have the ability to be moulded to some extent via the use of therapy. Although, it is not possible to alter an individuals’ personality altogether, it may be possible to alter their behaviours, with specific interest to their conscientiousness.

PART B

In the second half of this report there will be an evaluation of the new NHCCT psychiatric measure which will detail its validity and reliability. After this, guidance will be provided to the psychologist on the development of their new psychometric measure of conscientiousness and whether it is possible to assess the impact of their intervention to increase conscientiousness in the general population with reference to the association between conscientiousness and positive health behaviour.

The NHCCT Measure

The NHCCT measure is a 30-item assessment which aims to score the level of an individuals’ conscientiousness by using ‘short sentences which participants are asked to rate on a 5- point scale ranging from 1 (disagree strongly) to 5 (agree strongly)’. (Gremigni, Paola., 2020) The purpose of this measure is to examine the conscientiousness of individuals using a template of the Big Five Inventory whilst providing improved levels of comprehensiveness and reliability. 

Researchers may look for a good measure of conscientiousness for use in an adult context through questions on the individuals’ dependability, their organisational skills, their persistence, their planning, their punctuality, and their sense of responsibility. Someone who was highly conscientious would answer with high scores to these questions, and low scores when reversed.

This experiment consisted of 500 participants who took the test at the initial phase of the assessment, and then again 12 weeks later. The participants also took the The Big Five Inventory, 9-item Conscientiousness subscale, as a measure of conscientiousness in the initial phase of the assessment process. (John, O. P., & Srivastava, S., 1999) They then took the Big Five Inventory, 9-item Agreeableness subscale, a measure of agreeableness taken in the initial phase of the assessment process. (ibid., John, O. P., & Srivastava, S., 1999) And then the leisure score index (LSI) of the Godin Leisure Time Exercise Questionnaire, this was given 6 months after the NHCCT measure to assess Exercise Behaviour. (Godin, G., & Others, 1986)

Overall when compared with the initial assessment the BFI-C showed a correlation of 0.64 which is considered a moderate to strong correlation. The BFI-A showed a correlation of 0.09 which suggests a strong positive association between the two variables of the NHCCT measure and the BFI-A measure. Then the LSI measure showed a correlation of 0.67 which again is considered a moderate to strong correlation. When both NHCCT measures were compared against each other they showed a strong correlation of 0.75. The test also showed that when compared to other psychological measures such as agreeableness or openness to new experience, on average, the higher in conscientiousness a person presented, the lower they would present in other categories. 

Test Validity

It is important to use well-validated psychometric measures because they play a ‘key role in reproducibility and replicability of research findings and in confidence researchers may have in their findings to derive theoretical conclusions from them’. (ibid., Gremigni, Paola., 2020) Measures most commonly use self-report scales such as the NHCCT have done when measuring conscientiousness. Test developers often use additional measures during test validation process to assess whether the measure is fit for purpose. (Boateng, G. O., & Others, 2018)

Firstly, there is the item development stage - during this stage the developer will identify the domain and item generation, then they will conclude whether the content is valid. Validity is ‘the degree to which an instrument is capable of measuring a concept or trait’. (ibid., Gremigni, Paola., 2020) Validity is what indicates what a measure truly wishes to measure, in this case it would be conscientiousness. Validation is completed by ‘sequential phases such as conceptualisation of the construct, development and selection of indicators (items) to assess it, ensuring that the resulting scale content is both relevant and representative, using quantitative analyses (…) to determine the psychometric properties of the scale’. (ibid., Gremigni, Paola., 2020)

Within testing the overall validity of the test, the convergent validity must be assessed. Convergent validity ‘refers to how closely the new scale is related to other variables and other measures of the same construct’, not only should the two variables correlate with one another but they should not correlate with dissimilar, unrelated ones. (Paul F.M. Krabbe, 2017) NHCCT has a correlation of 0.75 whereas BFI-C has a correlation of 0.64. Both correlations are moving in the same direction, therefore the relationship between NHCCT and BFI-C therefore has a positive correlation. This information tells us that the convergent validity of the new measure is strong. 

Secondly, the discriminant validity must be assessed. Discriminant validity is ‘the degree to which a test or measure diverges from another measure whose underlying construct is conceptually unrelated to it’. (APA Dictionary of Psychology., 2022) The BFI-A has a correlation of 0.09 which would mean that the relationship between the NHCCT and BFI-A is wildly unrelated. This information tells us that the discriminant validity of the new measure is diverging from the other measure. 

Finally, the predictive validity may be assessed. Predictive validity 'refers to the degree to which scores on a test or assessment are related to performance on a criterion or gold standard assessment that is administered at some point in the future’. (Frey, B., 2018) The LSI has a correlation of 0.67 which is the closest correlation thus far to the NHCCT. The relationship between the NHCCT and LSI tells us that the predictive validity of the new measure is fairly positive. This outcome means that it is predicted that the test will be valid in the future. 

There is then a scale development stage - here they will pre-test the questions, sample and survey administer, reduce items, and extract factors. Thirdly, there is scale evaluation - here they will test the measures dimensionality, test for reliability, and finally test for validity. If all additional measures are met accordingly, then the measure will be considered fit for purpose. 

In summary, the NHCCT is a valid test as the variables are correlating positively which means that it is likely that the variables are being assessed accurately. It may be more valid if the conscientious scores could be compared against something which is already known to be true. For example, a baseline score that is the average of the population. It would be beneficial to have this data in the evaluation of this measure as it would give a clear indication of how accurate the results are. If individuals all tended to score above average then it would show that the test is inaccurate, or if the majority scored the average score then it would show that the test is incredibly accurate.

Test Reliability

The measure which the NHCCT has created is simple and valid in the eyes of the test developer, however are the results reliable? One way in which this measure conducts a reliable test is in the way in which it asks the questions to indicate more conscientiousness and then reversed the questions to indicate less conscientiousness. This means that the individual taking the test will have to repeat their answers in a reversed manner, thus making the test more reliable. 

Another way in which this measure is reliable is through how the test was repeated 12 weeks after the date of the initial assessment. When compared, these two tests had a correlation of 0.75 which is considered to be a strong correlation. This shows that the test can consistently score with the same results. However, in order to make a complete evaluation of the NHCCT further psychometric information could be provided. This could be a repeated study that shows that the results are the same in both studies another 12 weeks after the second study had been completed.

This would be beneficial to the evaluation of the measure as it would prove that the test is reliable if it were to continuously score similarly. Though this would not be completely necessary. 

In summary of reliability, the NHCCT measure is extremely reliable in assessing the conscientiousness of individuals as the structure of the measure is organised in a way which repeats questions in order to get an accurate result. It is also considered extremely reliable as both tests had a strong correlation between the two.

The efficacy of the NHCCT measure for adults who want to change their personality with respect of the general population

As the NHCCT measure has shown to accurately calculate whether a person is more or less conscientious, this data can then be used to aid individuals who desire to alter their personality to be more conscientious. For example, if someone were to score relatively low in conscientiousness then they have the knowledge that is required to change that. This may be done via the theories considered earlier in the report such as Dialectical Behavioural Therapy or  other self- help skills to enable the individual to organise more efficiently and gain a sense of responsibility. It may be beneficial to make the test available online so that individuals may track their progress in conscientiousness. Tracking progress can often motivate individuals to continue working towards their goals. It may also be advised to allow free access to materials online such as through the job seeker website so that individuals all have equal opportunity to advance their score.

In terms of psychological intervention of the overall population in order to increase conscientiousness, there is some general advice that can be given for the general public, but with special consideration to academic learning environments and workplace environments. For all of the general public it could considered that free classes be available for lessons in conscientiousness. This may be teaching individuals how to better organise their time, and how to take responsibility for their work. This could be particularly helpful in an academic setting as students will need to meet deadlines for their assignments. Raising conscientiousness in young students may influence potential conscientiousness in the future population. For those who are no longer in education, such as those who are in a workplace environment, free classes in conscientiousness would not only look appealing on a CV but it would also help those who perhaps never learnt the key skills on how to be conscientious. To make the classes more appealing, perhaps those who have taken and completed the class could receive some sort of certificate that rewards their hard work. Working toward a certificate may make individuals feel more determined to take part and succeed. 

In addition to this, the free classes could be available as rehabilitation for those serving prison time. This would aid the wider community as those who have been incarcerated may have the opportunity to recognise the responsibility they hold within the community. It would also allow convicted individuals to show their willingness to change before being released into society. 

Touching on an earlier method of intervention, it may be beneficial to use cognitive remediation within academic settings or perhaps youth centres. Not only would this lead to possible increases in conscientiousness, but it is also beneficial because it allows the individual to work freely by themselves without the help of a professional, in a fun environment.

Conclusion of Part B

The NHCCT measure has been proven to be valid as the positive correlations show that the variables are being assessed accurately. Though it was noted that it would be more valid if the conscientious scores could be compared against an average baseline score. The NHCCT measure has been proven to extremely reliable in detecting accurate scores in conscientiousness amongst the participants. This was proven by repeated tests and the repeat in questions. Due to being both valid and reliable it can be concluded that the NHCCT measure is a practical psychometric measure that may be used to measure conscientiousness in the future and perhaps aid toward the efficacy of psychological interventions for adults who want to change their personality.

Final Conclusion

In this report there has been a critical consideration of the relevant psychological research in terms of psychological intervention and its impact upon personality. This has detailed the specific trait of conscientiousness and how it may have physical health effects in the long term. It has also detailed the nature vs nurture debate and concluded that both play vital roles in an individuals’ psychological development. It was also noted that psychological intervention is possible, thus it must be possible for individuals to raise their own conscientiousness. 

Within part B of the report, there has been an evaluation on the validity and reliability of the new psychometric measure of NHCCT which concluded that the measure was both highly valid and highly reliable. Guidance has then been provided on the development of the psychometric measure of NHCCT with advice on how to increase levels of this personality trait in the general population including specific guidance in academia, work place environments, and prisons. This was guidance was given under the influence of the research which claims that higher levels of conscientiousness lead to higher benefits in health.

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Citing this essay:

Article Title:	Psychological Intervention and its impact upon personality
Author:	Mx. R.J. Gittins
Publisher:	SheThinkDifferent (The Unseen Spectrum)
Date Written:	Spring 2022
Date Published:	August 2024